Educational psychology Essay

School minorren in Durban, South Africa. In dinner dress procreation, a curriculum is the set of courses and their content offered at a condition or university. As an idea, curriculum stems from the Latin word for race course, referring to the course of deeds and experiences finished which children recrudesce to receive mature adults. A curriculum is prescriptive, and is based on a much superior general political platform which merely specifies what topics must be understood and to what level to achieve a particular grade or standard. An academic discipline is a branch of intimacy which is formally taught, either at the universityor via or so other such(prenominal) method.Each discipline usually has several sub-disciplines or branches, and distinguishing lines ar often twain(prenominal) arbitrary and ambiguous. Examples of broad areas of academic disciplines imply the natural accomplishments, mathematics, computer science,social sciences, humanities and applied sci ences. 5 Educational psychiatric hospitals whitethorn incorporate fine arts as part of K-12 grade curricula or within majors at colleges and universities as electives. The divers(a) subjects of fine arts are music, dance, and theater. 6 editPre conditionsMain article Pre naturalize gentility The term preschool refers to a school for children who are not old enough to attend kindergarten. It is a nursery school. Preschool raising is master(prenominal) beca give it jakes give a child the edge in a competitive adult male and statement climate. citation needed While children who do not receive the positives during their preschool eld will be taught the alphabet, counting, shapes and colors and designs when they experience their formal tuition they will be stooge the children who already possess thatknowledge.The true purpose behind kindergarten is to provide a child-centered, preschool curriculum for tercet to seven year old children that aimed at unfolding the childs phy sical, intellectual, and moral nature with balanced focus on each of them. 7 edit master(a) election schools Main article primitive gentility Primary school in open air. Teacher (priest) with class from the outskirts ofBucharest, virtually 1842. Primary (or elementary) commandment consists of the frontmost 57 years of formal, structured program line.In general, primary education consists of six or eight years of knowledge starting at the age of five or six, although this varies amongst, and some whiles within, countries. Globally, around 89% of primary-age children are enrolled in primary education, and this proportion is rising. 8 Under the Education For All programs driven by UNESCO, most countries grow committed to achieving universal enrollment in primary education by 2015, and in legion(predicate) countries, it is compulsory for children to receive primary education.The division between primary and alternate education is close to arbitrary, nevertheless it broad ly occurs at close to eleven or cardinal years of age. Some education systems admit separate mall schools, with the transmutation to the final stage of secondary education taking adorn at around the age of fourteen. Schools that provide primary education, are mostly referred to as primary schools. Primary schools in these countries are often subdivided into infant schools and junior school.In India, compulsory education spans all over twelve years, out of which children receive elementary education for 8 years. Elementary schooling consists of five years of primary schooling and 3 years of upper primary schooling. Various states in the re mankind of India provide 12 years of compulsory school education based on national curriculum framework knowing by the National Council of Educational Research and Training. editSecondary schools Main article Secondary education Students working with a schooler at Albany Senior High School, sore Zealand.Students in a classroom at Samdach Euv High School, Cambodia In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education comprises the formal education that occurs during adolescence. It is characterized by transition from the typically compulsory, comprehensive primary education for minors, to the optional, selective 3rd, post-secondary, or soaringer education (e. g. university, vocational school) for adults. Depending on the system, schools for this period, or a part of it, whitethorn be called secondary or broad(prenominal) schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools, colleges, or vocational schools.The exact meaning of any of these terms varies from one system to another(prenominal). The exact margin between primary and secondary education alike varies from country to country and even within them, just is slackly around the seventh to the tenth year of schooling. Secondary education occurs mainly during the teenage years. In the United States, Canada and Australia primary and secondary ed ucation together are sometimes referred to as K-12 education, and in modern Zealand Year 113 is utilize.The purpose of secondary education can be to give rough-cut knowledge, to prepare for high education or to train directly in a profession. The emergence of secondary education in the United States did not happen until 1910, ca apply by the rise in big businesses and technical advances in factories (for instance, the emergence of electrification), that required skilled workers. In hostel to meet this youthful job indigence, high schools were created, with a curriculum foc utilise on practical job skills that would better prepare students for white clerical collar or skilled blue collar work.This proved to be beneficial for twain employers and employees, for the improvement in human capital caused employees to become more efficient, which down in the mou thered costs for the employer, and skilled employees received a higher wage than employees with just primary educationa l attainment. In atomic number 63, grammar schools or academies date from as early as the 1sixth century, in the form of public schools, fee-paying schools, or charitable educational foundations, which themselves aim an even seven-day history. MLC Kx12 in Portland, Oregon editAutodidacticism Main article Autodidacticism.Autodidacticism ( too autodidactism) is self-directed learnedness that is related to but different from loose erudition. In a nose out, autodidacticism is eruditeness on your witness or by yourself, and an autodidact is a self-teacher. Autodidacticism is a contemplative, take up process. Some autodidacts spend a great deal of time re flocking the resources of libraries and educational websites. One may become an autodidact at nearly any point in ones life. While some may overhear been informed in a pompous manner in a particular field, they may choose to inform themselves in other, often unrelated areas.Notable autodidacts let in Abraham Lincoln (U. S. pre sident), Srinivasa Ramanujan (mathematician), Michael Faraday (chemist and physicist), Charles Darwin(naturalist), Thomas Alva Edison (inventor), Tadao Ando (architect), George Bernard Shaw (playwright), and da Vinci da Vinci (engineer, scientist, mathematician). editvocational Main article Vocational education Vocational education is a form of education focused on direct and practical training for a specific trade or craft.Vocational education may come in the form of an apprenticeship or internship as well as institutions commandment courses such as carpentry, agriculture, engineering, medicine, architecture and the arts. editIndigenous Main articleIndigenous education Indigenous education refers to the inclusion body of endemical knowledge, models, methods and content within formal and non-formal educational systems. Often in a post-colonial context, the growing acknowledgement and use of indigenous education methods can be a response to the erosion and loss of indigenousknowle dge and language with the processes of colonialism.Furthermore, it can enable indigenous communities to reclaim and revalue their languages and cultures, and in so doing, improve the educational success of indigenous students. 9 editAnarchistic emancipate schools Main article Anarchistic free school An anarchistic free school (to a fault anarchist free school and free school) is a decentralized mesh topology in which skills, information, and knowledge are shared without hierarchy or the institutional environment of formal schooling. unaffectionate school students may be adults, children, or both. This organisational structure is distinct from ones used by democratic free schools which permit childrens individual initiatives and learning endeavors within the context of a school democracy, and from free education where traditional schooling is made available to pupils without charge. The open structure of free schools is intended to encourage self-reliance, little consciousness, a nd personal development. Free schools often operate outside the market economy in favor of a gift economy.citation needed Nevertheless, the meaning of the free of free schools is not restricted to monetary cost, and can refer to an emphasis on free speech and student-centred education. citation needed editAlternative Main article Alternative education Alternative education, also cognize as non-traditional education or educational substitute, is a broad term that may be used to refer to all forms of education outside of traditional education (for all age groups and levels of education).This may include not only forms of education designed for students with circumscribed needs (ranging from teenage pregnancy to intellectual dis competency), but also forms of education designed for a general audience and employing alternative educational philosophies and methods. Alternatives of the latter type are often the result of education reform and are rooted in various philosophies that are commonly fundamentally different from those of traditional compulsory education.While some wee-wee strong political,scholarly, or philosophical orientations, others are more informal associations of teachers and students dissatisfied with certain aspects of traditional education. These alternatives, which include charter schools, alternative schools, free- liveness schools, homeschooling and autodidacticism vary, but often emphasize the value of small class size, close relationships between students and teachers, and a sense of community. Alternative education may also allow for independent learning and engaging class activities. 10 editSpecial.In the past, those who were disabled were often not eligible for public education. Children with disabilities were often educated by physicians or special tutors. These early physicians ( populate like Itard, Seguin, Howe, Gallaudet) set the foundation for special education today. They focused on individualized information and functional sk ills. Special education was only provided to people with severe disabilities in its early years, but more recently it has been opened to anyone who has experienced difficulty learning. 11 editEducation through funThe apprehension of education through recreation was scratch line applied to childhood development in the 19th century. 12 In the early 20th century, the concept was broadened to include young adults but the emphasis was on physical activities. 13 Educationalist Lawrence L. P. Jacks, who was also an early counsel of lifelong learning, best described the modern concept of education through recreation in the adjacent quotation A master in the art of living draws no sharp distinction between his work and his play, his labour and his leisure, his mind and his body, his education and his recreation.He hardly knows which is which. He simply pursues his vision of duty through whatever he is doing and leaves others to determine whether he is working or playing. To himself he al paths seems to be doing both. Enough for him that he does it well. (Jacks, 1932). 14 Education through recreation is the opportunity to learn in a unlined fashion through all of lifes activities. 15 The concept has been revived by the University of Western Ontario to teach anatomy to medical students. 15 - editSystems of higher education Main article higher(prenominal) education.The University of Cambridge is an institute of higher learning. Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or post secondary education, is the non-compulsory educational level that follows the completion of a school providing a secondary education, such as a high school or secondary school. third education is normally taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and universities are the main institutions that provide tertiary education. Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions.Tertiary education general ly results in the receipt ofcertificates, diplomas, or academic degrees. Higher education generally involves work towards a degree-level or foundation degree qualification. In most developed countries a high proportion of the population (up to 50%) now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Higher education is therefore very important to national economies, both as a significant industry in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated military unit for the rest of the economy. editUniversity systems Lecture at the Faculty of Biomedical Engineering, CTU in Prague.University education includes teaching, research, and social services activities, and it includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate (orpostgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as graduate school). Universities are generally composed of several colleges. In the United States, universities can be private and independent, likeYale University, t hey can be public and State governed, like the Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education, or they can be independent but State funded, like the University of Virginia. editOpenHigher education in particular is currently undergoing a transition towards open education, elearning alone is currently growing at 14x the rate of traditional learning. 16 Open education is lush growing to become the dominant form of education, for many reasons such as its superior capacity and results compared to traditionalist methods. 17 Cost of education has been an issue throughout history, and a major political issue in most countries today. Open education is generally significantly cheaper than traditional campus based learning and in many cases even free.Many large university institutions are now starting to offer free or near free full courses such as Harvard, MIT and Berkeley teaming up to form edX Other universities offering open education are Stanford, Princeton, Duke, Johns Hopkins, Edinbu rgh, U. Penn, U. Michigan, U. Virginia, U. Washington, Caltech. It has been called the biggest change in the modality we learn since the printing press. 18 Many people despite aureate studies on effectivness may still desire to choose traditional campus education for social and cultural reasons.19 The conventional merit system degree is currently not as common in open education as it is in campus universities. Although some open universities do already offer conventional degrees such as the Open University in the United Kingdom. Currently many of the major open education sources offer their own form of certificate. Due to the popularity of open education these new kind of academic certificates are gaining more take note and equal academic value to traditional degrees.20 Many open universities are working to have the ability to offer students standardized testing and traditional degrees and credentials. citation needed There has been a culture forming around distance learning for people who are looking to enjoy the shared social aspects that many people value in traditional on campus education that is not often directly offered from open education. citation needed Examples of this are people in open education forming study groups, meetups and movements such as UnCollege. editLiberal arts colleges.Saint Anselm College, a traditional New England free-hearted arts college. A liberal arts institution can be defined as a college or university curriculum aimed at imparting broad general knowledge and developing general intellectual capacities, in contrast to a professional, vocational, or technical curriculum. 21 Although what is known today as the liberal arts college began in Europe,22 the term is more commonly associated with Universities in theUnited Statescitation needed. Examples include St. Johns College, beating-reed instrument College, Carleton College, and Smith College.editCommunity colleges Main article community colleges A nonresidential junior coll ege offering courses to people living in a particular area. - editTechnology Main article Educational applied science One of the most hard uses in education is the use of technology. Also technology is an increasingly influential factor in education. Computers and lively phones are used in developed countries both to complement established education practices and develop new ways of learning such as online education (a type of distance education).This gives students the opportunity to choose what they are interested in learning. The proliferation of computers also mode the increase of programming and blogging. Technology offers powerful learning tools that demand new skills and understandings of students, including Multimedia, and provides new ways to engage students, such as Virtual learning environments. One such tool are virtual manipulatives, which are an interactive, Web-based visual representation of a dynamic object that presents opportunities for constructing numeral kn owledge (Moyer, Bolyard, & Spikell, 2002).In short, virtual manipulatives are dynamic visual/pictorial replicas of physical mathematical manipulatives, which have long been used to demonstrate and teach various mathematical concepts. Virtual manipulatives can be tardily accessed on the Internet as stand-alone applets, allowing for easy access and use in a word form of educational settings. Emerging research into the effectiveness of virtual manipulatives as a teaching tool have yielded promising results, suggesting comparable, and in many cases superior overall concept-teaching effectiveness compared to standard teaching methods.citation needed Technology is being used more not only in administrative duties in education but also in the instruction of students. The use of technologies such as PowerPoint and interactive whiteboard is capturing the attention of students in the classroom. Technology is also being used in the assessment of students. One example is the Audience Respon se System (ARS), which allows agile feedback tests and classroom discussions. 23 American students in 2001, in a computer fundamentals class taking a computer-based test Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are adiverse set of tools and resources used to communicate, create, disseminate, store, and manage information. 24 These technologies include computers, the Internet, broadcasting technologies (radio and television), and telephony. There is increasing interest in how computers and the Internet can improve education at all levels, in both formal and non-formal settings. 25 Older ICT technologies, such as radio and television, have for over forty years been used for open and distance learning, although print remains the cheapest, most accessible and therefore most dominant delivery mechanism in both developed and developing countries.26 In admittance to classroom application and growth of e-learning opportunities for knowledge attainment, educators involved in stude nt affairs programming have recognized the increasing importance of computer usage with data generation for and about students. Motivation and belongings counselors, along with faculty and administrators, can impact the potential academic success of students by provision of technology based experiences in the University setting. 27 The use of computers and the Internet is in its infancy in developing countries, if these are used at all, due to limited infrastructure and the attendant high costs of access.Usually, various technologies are used in combination rather than as the sole delivery mechanism. For example, the Kothmale Community Radio Internet uses both radio broadcasts and computer and Internet technologies to facilitate the sharing of information and provide educational opportunities in a rural community in Sri Lanka. 28 The Open University of the United Kingdom (UKOU), established in 1969 as the first educational institution in the world wholly dedicated to open and dista nce learning, still relies severely on print-based materials supplemented by radio, television and, in recent years, online programming.29 Similarly, the Indira Gandhi National Open University in India combines the use of print, enter audio and video, broadcast radio and television, and audio conferencing technologies. 30 The term computer-assisted learning (CAL) has been increasingly used to describe the use of technology in teaching. Classrooms of the 21st century contain interactive white boards, tablets, mp3 players, laptops, etc. Wiki sites are another tool teachers can implement into CAL curricula for students to understand communication and collaboration efforts of group work through electronic means.citation needed Teachers are encouraged to embed these technological devices and services in the curriculum in order to kick upstairs students learning and meet the needs of various types of learners. - editAdult Main article Adult education Adult learning, or adult education, is the practice of training and developing skills in adults. It is also sometimes referred to as andragogy (the art and science of helping adults learn). Adult education has become common in many countries.It takes on many forms, ranging from formal class-based learning to self-directed learning and e-learning. A number of career specific courses such as veterinarian assisting, medical billing and coding, real estate license,bookkeeping and many more are now available to students through the Internet. With the boom of information from availability of knowledge through means of internet and other modern low cost information exchange mechanisms people are beginning to take an attitude of Lifelong learning.To take a leak knowledge andself improvement a lifelong focus as opposed to the more traditional view that knowledge and in particular value creating trade skills are to be learned just exclusively in youth. - editLearning modalities Students in laboratory, Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University. There has been work on learning styles over the die two decades. Dunn and Dunn31 focused on identifying relevant stimuli that may influence learning and manipulating the school environment, at about the same time as Joseph Renzulli32 recommended varying teaching strategies.Howard Gardner33 identified individual talents or aptitudes in his duplex Intelligencestheories. Based on the works of Jung, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Keirsey Temperament Sorter34 focused on understanding how peoples personality affects the way they interact personally, and how this affects the way individuals respond to each other within the learning environment. The work of David Kolb and Anthony Gregorcs Type Delineator35 follows a similar but more simplified approach. It is currently modernistic to divide education into different learning modes.The learning modalities36 are probably the most common * visual learning based on observation and seeing what is being learned. * Auditory learning based on listening to instructions/information. * Kinesthetic learning based on hands-on work and engaging in activities. Although it is claimed that, depending on their preferred learning modality, different teaching techniques have different levels of effectiveness,37 recent research has argued there is no adequate evidence base to justify incorporating learning styles assessments into general educational practice.38 A signification of this possible action is that effective teaching should present a variety of teaching methods which cover all three learning modalities so that different students have equal opportunities to learn in a way that is effective for them. 39Guy Claxton has questioned the extent that learning styles such as VAK are helpful, particularly as they can have a tendency to label children and therefore restrict learning.InstructionTeacher in a classroom in Madagascar Instruction is the facilitation of anothers learning. Instructors in primar y and secondary institutions are often called teachers, and they direct the education of students and might draw on manysubjects like reading, writing, mathematics, science and history. Instructors in post-secondary institutions might be called teachers, instructors, or professors, depending on the type of institution and they primarily teach only their specific discipline.Studies from the United States suggest that the quality of teachers is the item-by-item most important factor affecting student performance, and that countries which score highly on international tests have multiple policies in place to ensure that the teachers they employ are as effective as possible. 4243 With the pop offing game of NCLB in the United States (No Child Left Behind), teachers must be highly qualified.A popular way to gauge teaching performance is to use student evaluations of teachers (SETS), but these evaluations have been criticized for being counterproductive to learning and inaccurate due t o studentbias. 44 - editTheory Main articleEducation theory Education theory can refer to either a normative or a descriptive theory of education. In the first case, a theory means a postulation about what ought to be. It provides the goals, norms, and standards for conducting the process of education. 45 In the second case, it means an hypothesis or set of hypotheses that have been verified by observation and experiment.46 A descriptive theory of education can be thought of as a conceptual scheme that ties together various otherwise discrete particulars. . . For example, a cultural theory of education shows how the concept of culture can be used to organize and unify the variety of facts about how and what people learn. 47 Likewise, for example, there is the behaviorist theory of education that comes from educational psychology and thefunctionalist theory of education that comes from sociology of education. 48 - editEconomics Main article Economics of educationStudents on their way to school, Hakha,Chin State, Myanmar It has been argued that high rates of education are essential for countries to be able to achieve high levels of stinting growth. 49 Empirical analyses tend to support the theoretical prediction that poor countries should grow faster than rich countries because they can adopt cutting edge technologies already tried and tested by rich countries. However, technology tape drive requires knowledgeable managers and engineers who are able to operate new machines or production practices borrowed from the leader in order to close the gap through imitation.Therefore, a countrys ability to learn from the leader is a function of its stock of human capital. Recent study of the determinants of aggregate economic growth have stressed the importance of fundamental economic institutions50 and the role of cognitive skills. 51 At the individual level, there is a large literature, generally related back to the work of Jacob Mincer,52 on how earnings are related t o the schooling and other human capital of the individual. This work has motivated a large number of studies, but is also controversial.The chief controversies revolve around how to interpret the impact of schooling. 5354 Economists Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis famously argued in 1976 that there was a fundamental conflict in American schooling between the egalitarian goal of democratic participation and the inequalities implied by the continued profitability of capitalist production on the other. 55 - editHistory Main article History of education Nalanda quaint center for higher learning. Platos academy, mosaic from Pompeii.The history of education according to Dieter Lenzen, president of the Freie Universitat Berlin 1994, began either millions of years ago or at the end of 1770. Education as a science cannot be apart(p) from the educational traditions that existed before. Adults trained the young of their society in the knowledge and skills they would need to master and event ually pass on. The evolution of culture, and human beings as a species depended on this practice of transmitting knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation.Story-telling continued from one generation to the next. Oral language developed into written symbols and letters. The depth and breadth of knowledge that could be preserved and passed soon increased exponentially. When cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond the basic skills of communicating, trading, gathering food, ghostly practices, etc. , formal education, and schooling, eventually followed. Schooling in this sense was already in place in Egypt between 3000 and 500BC. citation needed The first large established university is thought to be Nalanda established in 427 A.D in India. 56unreliable source? At its peak, the university attracted scholars and students from as far away as Tibet, china, Greece, and Persia. The first university establishments in the western world are th ought to beUniversity of Bologna (founded in 1088) and later Oxford university (founded around 1096). A depiction of the University of Bologna, Italy, founded in 1088. Matteo Ricci (left) and Xu Guangqi (right) in the Chinese edition of Euclids Elementspublished in 1607. In the West, Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BC.Plato was the Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician and writer of philosophical dialogues who founded the Academy in Athens which was the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Inspired by the admonition of his mentor, Socrates, prior to his unjust capital punishment that the unexamined life is not worth living, Plato and his student, the political scientist Aristotle, helped lay the foundations of Western philosophy and science. 57 The city of Alexandria in Egypt was founded in 330BC, became the successor to Athens as the intellectual cradle of the Western World.The city hosted such in the lead lights as the mathematician E uclidand anatomist Herophilus constructed the great Library of Alexandria and translated the Hebrew Bible into Greek (called the Septuagint for it was the work of 70 translators). Greek elaboration was subsumed within the Roman Empire. While the Roman Empire and its new Christian religion survived in an increasingly Hellenised form in the Byzantine Empire centered at Constantinople in the easternmost, Western civilization suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in AD 476.58 In the East, Confucius (551-479), of the State of Lu, was Chinas most influential ancient philosopher, whose educational outlook continues to influence the societies of China and neighbours like Korea, japan and Vietnam. He gathered disciples and searched in vain for a ruler who would adopt his ideals for good governance, but his analects were written down by followers and have continued to influence education in the East into the modern era. In Western Europe after the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church emerged as the consolidative force.Initially the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe, the church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centers of advanced education. Some of these ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europes modern universities. 58 During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous and influential Chartres Cathedral School.